Milia Margulis (Sonochemistry, Andreev Acoustics Institute)

Published in physic.philica.com

Abstract
At basing of the chemical bonds formation the major effect is not the “overlapping of electronic densities of electrons” as accepted by a major part of investigators, but effects of the Lorentz forces arising as a result of different electromagnetic interactions and, consequently, summing of ether flows. As a result of these interactions chemical forces arise. They are directed to the deep of molecule and strongly keep all the atoms and the fragments of molecule. These forces correspond chemical bonds between atoms. In the frames of the proposed model the formation of ?-, ?- and ?-bonds are considered. It is shown that representation of delocalization of chemical bonds and formulas of aromatic compounds with proposed conception turn out to be more obvious then with use of Kekule formula.

Article body

The chemical bond is the fundamental concept at the determination of reasons of molecules formation, their stability and capability of react. The contemporary theory of atoms and molecules construction (quanta mechanics) is founded on the lows of the movement of micro particles: protons, neutrons, electrons having very small mass. This theory does not consider the ether participation in the formation of chemical bonds. But our analysis [1] has shown that ether participation is very important.

In this work the mechanism of chemical bond formation and stabilization of molecules is considered.

In spite of the fact that the quanta theory has notable successes some defects of quanta mechanic model of atom:

1. This model is not clearness, and this means that many of obtained solutions is impossible to describe by usual understood conceptions, and one force to describe this ideas as some "peculiarity" of the considered object.

2. Mathematic device of the quanta mechanics is enough complicated, and even for simplest objects, different from hydrogen atom, usually is fail to obtain the analytic solution of a problem.

3. It is unclear, by what manner proceeds the overcoming of the knot place between two branches of electron orbitales.

4. Formation of the chemical bond one consider now as the overlapping of electron orbitales [2]. At this process is unclear the mechanism of stabilization of a molecule at the maximal overlapping of electron densities, as the electron densities of electrons have the same sign of electric charge and they must mutually attract.

        Let us remind some theses of the theory of penetrating ether [3]:

• - Electron, proton and other charged particles are not pointed and have shape of a Mobius Band (MB).
• - During the progressive movement of charged particles around them whirlwinds form around them in the plate perpendicular to the direction of these particles movement.
• - Dual nature of light is a result of superposition of two independent effects: propagation of the excitation waves of ether and direct action of photons.
• - The movement of ether particles (etherons) proceeds without viscosity.
• - Diamagnetic substances are "transparent" to the ether flow; ether does not react with electrons paired or forming chemical bond.

1. At investigation of properties of ether it is necessary take into account that it is a universal component at all types of movement, not dependent on space scale of considered phenomena, character of interactions, rates and mass of participate objects and so on. That is why ether may take part, for example, in cosmic processes, in usual laboratory experiments, and also in processes related to physics of microcosm. It is a proper scale factor for all of these effects, all of them may act not dependent one from other, run simultaneously and do not hinder to realization each of them any time (like, for example, many movements, flows, waves on the micro- and macro level in a see may run in the same time). Considering formation of chemical bonds, we will analyze the conduct of atoms, molecules and elementary particles.

        One of difficulties for a quanta mechanics of atom and molecules was the question that the structure of solution of the Schrodinger equation definitely points at the presence in the most cases two space fields of electron orbitales, the knot point is between them. The probability of the presence of a moving electron in the knot point is zero and the probabilities of the presence of a moving electron in each of these space fields of electron orbitales are equal. That is why it is unclear, by what manner a moving electron can overcame the knot point at all! As an example let's consider a space shape orbitales for major quanta number n from 1 till 3.

        Let's remind that one dimension of magnet quantum number m=0                corresponds the orbital quantum number l = 0.  s-Orbitales correspond this m number. Accordingly to solution of the Schrodinger equation, s-orbitales have a shape of sphere and have not a knot point. At l = 1 on the p-subtotal orbitals have a shape of volume figure-of-eight (dumbbells). For d-subtotal l = 2, magnet quantum number m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2. Accordingly, any d-subtotal contains five orbitailes, four of them have a shape of four petal rosette, each of them is formed by two "dumbbells". Other atom orbitales are more complicated. For each of petal rosettes the knot plate must be insuperable for a pointed electron, as the probability of presence of this type of electron in the knot plate is zero. But accordingly to the theory of penetrated ether, for the electron in the shape of MB knot point, for example, at the orbitale in a shape of "dumbbell" is quite surmountable (fig. 1) [3], if the dimension of MB of the electron is much more then dimension of atom nucleus. And this condition must be executed always.

Fig.1. Scheme for explanation the overcoming of atom nucleus by p-electron.

2. The study of chemical bond help to determine the reasons of formation of molecules, their stability and reaction capability. The contemporary theory of construction of atom and molecules now is far from completion, it is created and improved continuously. It is founded on the lows of quanta mechanics. And the movement of micro particles: protons, neutrons, electrons, characterized by very small mass, submit to these lows.

        Let's consider the base ether flows around the electron orbitales of different molecules with account that electrons are MB rotating around orbitales; the center of MB is continuously on the orbitale. Let's remind that atomic or molecular orbitale is a geometric figure of one electron wave function, but in this work we use the term "orbitale" also for denote the orbit of a particle. Movement of electron, containing a rotation around the tangent to the orbitale and a progressive movement in the direction of the tangent with the momentary rate v, leads to arising of ether flows in the plate, perpendicular to the direction of the progressive movement. This is a result that the electron is a secluded figure - MB. These ether flows, in general case, are directed at a screw line related to orbitale (the rule of the right screw). The movement of electron around the orbitale in many relations is analogous to the movement of electric current through the solenoid, that forms a secluded curve in the form of the orbitale. Later we will show that as a result of electrons movement the forces arise that corroborate orbitales and consequently corroborate fragments of the molecules. Let's call these forces as chemical forces. The pointed electrons and protons give not any possibility to ground arise of the chemical forces, and this is a reason that now one have to say about the "overlapping of electron orbitales". It is necessary to remember that orbitales are a space figures, and the directions of electrons rotation are projections of the space figures, that have an axe of symmetry, on the plate of the draft. The Lorentz forces F, presented on the figures, corroborating the fragments of molecules, are true directions of space forces. Other words, one force F, as it turned out, corresponds different space orientations of the directions of electrons movement. At the later analyze we will consider different types of formed chemical bonds, their configuration for the systems with increasing complication. For the more clearness all the questions will be considered as the examples of the concrete molecules or bonds.

        3. Atoms of hydrogen contain 1 proton and 1 electron. The molecule H₂ contains 2 protons and 2 electrons (fig. 2 a,b). Electron orbitales may contain parallel- (fig. 2 a) and antiparallel- (fig. 2 b) oriented s-electrons. Because of possibility of electron orbitales displacement on the sphere surface, for example, formation of orto- and parahydrogen is possible. On the fig. 2 and later momentary state of the electron in a view of MB, projection on the plate of the figure, was denoted as a short line; an arrow shows the direction of electron movement; by dotted line was denoted the intermediate state of electron and the direction of its movement.

Fig.2. Scheme of hydrogen molecule formation at interaction of two atom s-orbitales and formation of σ-bond at the electrons movement: a - consecutive, b - counter.

     If valence electrons of atom are on atom s-orbitales, they may form bonds in any directions and these bonds will be identical strong with all of these directions. At this process Lorentz forces F arise, that are parallel to the line, joining centers of atoms.

        Formation of σ-bond of two s-orbitales is possible to present by the scheme  (fig. 3a). The probability of different orientation of electrons is high enough. In the place of contact s-orbitales the zone of reduced stress state arises, where ether flows corresponding to electrons movement accordingly arrows (the rule of screw) directed towards one to another. That is why in the place of orbitales contact it is possible to consider the ether flow as near zero (fig. 3 c). Corresponding places,

where

a)                                                                                b)

 c)

d)

Fig.3. Scheme of hydrogen molecule formation: a - approach of electron orbitales and formation of reduces stress state; b - surface of s-orbitales contact formation, c - formation of common s-orbitale; d - equivalent scheme of two conductors interaction.

summary ether flow is near zero, interflow, and smooth and delocalized structure of ether flows arises (fig. 3 c, 4 c). On the sites opposite to the place of orbitales contact, ether flows are maximum. Consequently Lorentz forces arise, directed in the site of reduced stress state [2], i.e. inside of molecule formed (fig. 2 a). This process is presented in the fig. 3 a,b,c. It is possible to present the "equivalent" scheme (fig. 3 d), in which are presented sections of conductors, around which ether flows arise in the direction similar with direction flows around atom orbitales. The direction of current in the conductors corresponds to these directions of ether flows. At the same direction of currents the conductors mutual attract as a result of action of force F, accordingly to [2,3]. "The compression" of electron orbitales is noted by the thickening of surface of their contact and corresponds the reduced stress state (fig. 3b, 4b). Fig. 3c and 4c are examples of collectivization and delocalization of electrons and orbitales.

a)

 b)

c)

 d)

 Fig. 4. Scheme of σ-bond formation at interaction of two atom p-orbitales: a - approach of electron orbitales and formation of reduces stress state; b - formation of common contact surface of p-orbitales; c - delocalization of p-orbitales; d - equivalent scheme of conductors interaction.

4. In the case of atom p-orbitales  during interaction of electron orbitales σ-bond also forms along the line join atoms (fig. 4). Let's consider more detailed the mechanism of formation of such type of bonds typical for more total case. At the formation of, for example, σ-bond is necessary to consider directly a field of contact of two orbitailes belong to different atoms. To the bond turn out stable, it is necessary the movement of two electrons in the field of two orbitales contact in different sites (fig. 4a,b). At this condition between orbitales, in the field of their contact, the reduced stress state forms. If one direct the movement of the opposite, extreme branches of "electron density" accordingly to the rule of a screw, we obtain higher stress states in these fields and directions of Lorentz forces F, that "press" orbitailes to the central part of molecule with σ-bond. The formation of σ-bond of two atom p-orbitailes is presented by the scheme (fig. 4a). This process is also represent on figures 4 a,b,c. In the places of contact of p-orbitailes space dumbbells fields reduced stress states also forms, where ether flows corresponding the movement of electron along the arrow (according to the rule of a screw) directed toward one to another. In the place of orbitales contact it is possible to consider the total ether flow about zero (fig. 4 c). Ether flows are maximal at the sites opposite the places of contact of d-orbitailes. Consequently, Lorentz forces, directed to the reduced stress state [1,3], i.e. inside the formed molecule, arise (fig. 4 b,c). It is possible to present the "equivalent" scheme (fig. 4 d), that depict sections of conductors with the same direction of current, these conductors mutual attract under action of Lorentz forces F.

Formation  of σ-bond of two atomic d-orbitales also may be presented by the scheme (fig. 5 a). This process is presented also on the fig. 5 a,b. In the place of contact of the space four-leaf d-orbitales fields of reduced stress states form, where ether flows correspond the movement of electron along the arrow (according to the rule of a screw) directed toward one to another. In the place of orbitales contact it is possible to consider the total ether flow about zero (fig. 5 c). Ether flows are

a) 

b)

c)

Fig. 5. Scheme of σ-bond formation at interaction of two atom d-orbitales: a - approach of electron orbitales and formation of reduces stress state; b - formation of common contact surface of p-orbitales; c- equivalent scheme of conductors interaction.

maximal at the sites opposite the places of contact of d-orbitailes. Consequently, Lorentz forces, directed to the reduced stress state, i.e. inside the formed molecule, arise (fig. 5 b,c). It is possible to present the "equivalent" scheme (fig. 4 d), that depicts sections of conductors with the same direction of current, these conductors mutual attract under action of Lorentz forces F.

5. Formation of π-bonds of two atomic p-orbitales presented by the scheme (fig. 6 a). This process is presented also on the fig. 6 a,b. In the place of contact of the space figure-of-eight of p-orbitales fields of reduced stress states form where ether flows correspond the movement of electron along the arrow (according to the rule of a screw) directed toward one to another. In two places of orbitales contact it is possible to consider the total ether flow about zero (fig. 6 a,b). Ether flows are maximal at the sites opposite the places of contact of p-orbitailes. Consequently, Lorentz forces, directed to the reduced stress state, i.e. inside the formed molecule, arise (fig. 6 b). It is possible to present the "equivalent" scheme (fig. 6 c), that depicts sections of conductors with the same direction of current, these conductors mutual attract under action of Lorentz forces F.

a) 

b) 

c)

Fig. 6. Scheme of π -bond formation at interaction of two atom p-orbitales: a - approach of electron orbitales and formation of reduces stress state; b - formation of common contact surface of p-orbitales; c- equivalent scheme of conductors interaction. 

Formation of π-bond of two atomic d-orbitales presented by the scheme (fig. 7 a). This process is presented on the fig. 7 a,b. In two places of contact of the space four-leaf of d-orbitales fields of reduced stress states form, where ether flows corresponding the movement of electron along the arrow (according to the rule of a screw) directed toward one to another. In two places of orbitales contact it is possible to consider the total ether flow about zero (fig. 7 a,b). Ether flows are maximal at the sites opposite the places of contact of d-orbitailes. Consequently, Lorentz forces, directed to the reduced stress state, i.e. inside the formed molecule, arise (fig. 7 b). It is possible to present the "equivalent" scheme (fig. 7 c), that depicts sections of conductors with the same direction of current, these conductors mutual attract under action of Lorentz forces F.

a) 

b)

c) 

Fig. 7. Scheme of π -bond formation at interaction of two atom d-orbitales: a - approach of electron orbitales and formation of reduces stress state; b - formation of common contact surface of d-orbitales; c- equivalent scheme of conductors interaction.

6.Formation of δ -bond of two atomic d-orbitales presented by the scheme (fig. 8 a). In the fig. 8a  the directions of formed δ-bonds denoted by dotted lines. The space four-leaf rosettes react "flat", at all by four formed reduced stress states. The space equivalent scheme does not give a simple direction of the current.

Fig. 8. Scheme of δ-bond formation at interaction of two atom d-orbitales (δ-bonds, formed between fields of reduces stress state). 

Double bonds between atoms form by the exchange mechanism in the case when in ground atom station number of inpared electrons is more when it is necessary for formation of σ-bonds. For example, in the ethylene molecule C₂H₄ each carbon atom forms three σ-bonds: with two hydrogen atoms H and one carbon atom C, and fourth bond C - C  is a π-bond, that is in the plate, perpendicular to the plate of σ-bond. Consequently in the ethylene molecule ?₂?₄ the double bond ? = ? forms owing to one σ-bond and one π-bond (fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Scheme of bonds formation in the ethylene ?₂?₄ molecule: a - formation of forces and bonds (only base reacting electrons and orbitales are indicated).

In the acetylene molecule ?₂?₂ each carbon atom forms two σ-bonds: with one atom H and one atom C and besides between carbon atoms two π-bonds form. So, in molecule ?₂?₂ triple bond ? ≡ ? forms owing one σ-bond and two π-bonds.

7. Delocalization of double bonds  between six carbon atoms in the simplex molecule of aromatic hydrocarbon, molecule of benzene ?₆?₆ occurs similar as it proceeds for more simple systems (fig. 3c, 4c). In the fig. 10a presented a fragment of the cyclic structure of molecule ?₆?₆ without "passive" parts of electron orbitales. In this figure was depicted Lorentz forces F, bringing together carbon atoms. Scheme of only delocalized parts of electron orbitales for molecule benzene without superfluous parts of electron orbitales, not participating in forming of chemical bonds, is presented in fig. 10b. From this scheme can be seen that the aromatic substance, benzene as a result of delocalization of electron orbitales, has quite equitable reaction capability atoms of carbon and hydrogen, that are disclosure quite symmetric. From this figure can be seen that carbon - carbon bonds are quite equitable, that corresponds a number of experimental data, obtained at investigation of constructions and reaction capability of aromatic substances. In side of alternate single and double bonds in the benzene molecule, corresponding the Kekule formula, we have obtained a quite symmetric molecule of benzene, this cannot be presented in a view "usual" structure formula. This concern also various substituted of benzene. Scheme, presented in the fig. 10 b, much better characterizes the construction of different aromatic substances.

    a)

b)

Fig. 10. Scheme of bonds formation in the benzene ?₆?₆ molecule (only base reacting electrons and orbitales are indicated): a - formation of forces and bonds in the fragment of molecule; b - full picture of delocalization of electron orbitales at formation of bonds in the benzene molecule.

Thus, for ground the process of chemical bonds formation, to our mind, it is necessary to consider that the major effect is not an "overlapping of electron densities of electrons" [2], but effects of arising of different electromagnetic interactions and consequently arising of Lorentz forces owing to adding of ether flows [1]. As a result of these interactions chemical forces between atoms arise. These forces directed deep into a molecule strong corroborates the atoms and fragments of molecules. These forces lead to arising of chemical bonds between atoms. Action of these forces leads to a formation of all chemical substances, all living and lifeless matter on Earth and cosmos.

References

1. Margulis M.A., Model of ether and electron. Moscow, Sputnik, 2010.

2. Gurov A.A., Badaev F.S., Ovcharenco L.P., Shapoval V.N., Chemistry. Moscow, Bowman MGTU, 2004.

3. Margulis M.A. Theory of penetrating ether. Philica, Article ? 156, 2009.  

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The full citation for this Article is: Margulis, M. (2010). Nature of forces calling forth a chemical bond. PHILICA.COM Article number 179.